By Børge Solem
The Captain's Role on Emigrant Ships
The captain played a pivotal role in the emigrant ship experience, serving as both the leader and enforcer of order aboard. Beyond navigating the ship safely across the Atlantic, the captain bore responsibility for maintaining the welfare of hundreds of passengers crammed into confined spaces under challenging conditions. This included overseeing hygiene, managing limited resources, and mediating conflicts among passengers and crew.
Strictness varied among captains, with some demonstrating remarkable dedication to passenger health and safety. Captains like Eckersberg of the Drafna earned reputations for enforcing rigorous cleaning routines and encouraging outdoor activity to mitigate seasickness. Others adopted harsh measures, often prioritizing discipline and order over passenger comfort. Despite their varying temperaments, most captains understood that the well-being of passengers directly affected the success of the voyage.
Captains were also moral authorities on board, officiating funerals and leading prayers during crises. When illnesses broke out, their ability to enforce quarantine or adapt the ship's routines could mean the difference between survival and tragedy. The captain's leadership was critical in moments of danger, such as navigating storms or responding to accidents. For instance, captains like those of the Hannah Parr and Marie of Bergen were credited with saving lives during near-disasters.
Ultimately, the captain's leadership style and decision-making shaped the emigrant experience, determining whether the journey was a harrowing ordeal or a relatively manageable transition to a new life. While the hardships of emigrant voyages were undeniable, capable and compassionate captains were often the unsung heroes who ensured as many passengers as possible reached their destination safely.
Ventilation and hygiene challenges:
Ventilation posed significant challenges on board, particularly during bad weather. Few ships had ventilation devices; for instance, the Bolivar had special ventilation pipes, but most sailing ships relied on simple vents. During storms, these vents were sealed to prevent water ingress, leading to stagnant air. This closure also blocked light, plunging the between-deck into darkness. Fire hazards prohibited the use of oil lamps during storms, compounding the discomfort. Seasickness was prevalent, and vomit, along with other waste, often soiled the between-deck. Those unaffected by seasickness struggled with the overpowering stench.
Toilet facilities were generally poor. On the Norden, which sailed from Bergen in 1866 with nearly 400 passengers, there were only two primitive toilets - one on each side of the ship. Only the leeward toilet could be used, resulting in long queues. The stench deterred crew members from entering the between-deck. Some ships attempted to mitigate the smell; for example, the first mate on the Norden used a red-hot iron dipped in tar to neutralize odors, while others used steam from chlorine and vinegar.
Efforts to maintain hygiene:
Despite these challenges, efforts were made to uphold hygiene standards. Passengers often assisted with daily cleaning duties. Some captains enforced strict cleanliness routines; for example, on the Drafna under Captain Eckersberg, the between-deck was scraped twice weekly. On the Laurvig in 1854, two passengers were tasked with daily cleaning. However, personal hygiene among passengers varied, often due to limited access to water and differing habits from home. Rainwater was sometimes collected for washing.
Health and illnesses:
Seasickness was nearly universal, and while there was no effective medicine, home remedies were common. On the bark Ægir in 1837, passengers were treated with gruel. Captain Eckersberg encouraged seasick passengers on the Drafna in 1852 to spend time above deck. Other illnesses, such as cholera, typhoid fever, measles, chickenpox, and dysentery, were far more severe.
In 1862, typhoid fever on the Amelia claimed 49 of 280 passengers during the crossing. Upon arrival, 170 passengers were quarantined at Grosse Île, where an additional 31 perished. On the Laurvig in 1853, closed hatches during weeks of bad weather led to a dysentery outbreak, resulting in 19 deaths. Fever on the Maple Leaf in 1861 killed 21 passengers, 19 of whom were children.
Safety and shipwrecks:
Between 1825 and 1875, no Norwegian emigrant vessels sank with loss of life, though close calls occurred. For instance, the brig Frihandel sank in 1854, but all 17 passengers were rescued by the American ship St. George. In 1864 the Marie of Bergen, was hit by a hurricane, and lost its rig. They managed to reach Shields in England for repairs, but had a dreadful voyage across the Atlantic. In 1868, the Hannah Parr endured severe storm damage and detoured to Limerick, Ireland, for repairs, delaying passengers by 107 days. The Valkyrien collided with a brigantine in 1873 but reached Dover for repairs.
While Norwegian emigrant ships avoided major disasters, other vessels carrying Norwegian emigrants were less fortunate. In 1852 a group of Norwegian emigrants made it across the Atlantic on the bark Argo. On the inland voyage 67 of them perished in the disaster on Lake Erie, when the steamboat Atlantic collided with the Ogdensburg and sank.
Mortality and causes:
The great mortality among the emigrants certain years was the result of illnesses on board. Illness could most often be attributed to poor hygiene. The majority of those who succumbed were small children and elderly persons who had little resistance. On the bark Nordlyset, which was under the command of Captain Hansen from Christiania, 29 of the passengers perished in 1861, most of them children. The Nordlyset had a tonnage of 330 register tons, and was carrying 303 passengers. When they got into bad weather the hatches had to be closed much of the time. Conditions for the passengers were reported to be very bad in the sealed off, dark compartment. In the year 1862 many Norwegian ships encountered problems due to bad weather. In addition to carrying too many passengers, the crossing took longer time. The average crossing time this year was 63 days, ten days longer than the all over average between 1840 and 1874. This resulted in a great deal of sickness on board. A total of 184 Norwegian emigrants died on the way to Quebec and 42 died in quarantine following their arrival. These 226 deaths represent about four percent of all the Norwegian emigrants who traveled via Quebec that year. Those who died at sea were buried at sea, either wrapped in canvas or placed in coffins constructed by the ship's carpenter. There was often a shortage of lumber for coffins on board ships where there were many deaths, and there were times when two persons were placed in the same coffin with feet in opposite directions. If there were no minister on board, the captain would read a funeral service before the bodies were sunk into the ocean. On the brig Incognito sailing in 1852, the story says that there were a lot of deaths, and sharks were following the ship. Grieving parents had to watch the sharks attack the body of their deceased child as it entered the water.
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