Steerage Passengers - Emigrants Between Decks

Between Decks on a Sailing Vessel

By Børge Solem

The "steerage," or between-deck (often shortened to "tween-deck"), was originally the deck located immediately below the main deck of a sailing ship. (In Norwegian: Mellomdekk or Mellemdekk.)

In the early days of emigration, the ships used to transport emigrants were originally built for carrying cargo. In practice, passengers were placed in the cargo hold. Temporary partitions were typically erected to create steerage accommodations. To access the between-deck, passengers often had to use ladders, and the passageways between the hatches were frequently narrow and steep.

The way these ships were equipped varied greatly, as there were no standardized guidelines for such arrangements. Furnishings needed to be easily removable and as inexpensive as possible. Once the ships had delivered their passengers, the temporary furnishings were discarded, and the ship was prepared to carry return cargo to Europe.

The pictures show examples of how many sailing ships were equipped during this time. The "steerage", or between-deck, often shortened to "tween-deck", was originally the deck immediately below the main deck of a sailing ship. (In Norwegian: Mellomdekk or Mellemdekk)

The "steerage," or "tween-deck," was originally the deck located immediately below the main deck of a sailing ship. (In Norwegian: Mellomdekk or Mellemdekk.)

In the early days of emigration, the ships used to transport emigrants were originally designed for carrying cargo. Passengers were, in practice, placed in the cargo hold. Temporary partitions were typically erected to create steerage accommodations. To access the between-deck, passengers often had to use ladders, and the passageways between the hatches were often narrow and steep.

The way these ships were equipped varied greatly, as there were no established standards for passenger arrangements. Furnishings needed to be inexpensive and easily removable. Once the ships had delivered their passengers, the temporary fittings were discarded, and the ship was prepared to carry return cargo to Europe.

The pictures illustrate how many sailing ships were equipped during this period.

The origin of the term "steerage," used to describe the part of a ship designated for passengers traveling at the cheapest rate, is somewhat unclear. Most encyclopedias and other written sources generally agree that the term "steerage" derives from the fact that the control lines of the rudder ran along this level of the ship. Another, more imaginative theory suggests that the term comes from "steers" (cattle), implying that emigrants traveled on the same decks used for transporting livestock. Interestingly, the term "steerage" sems to be unique to the English language. Equivalent terms in other languages, such as German, Spanish, or the Scandinavian languages, refer instead to the concept of a "between deck." For example, in German, it is "Zwischendeck"; in Spanish, "Entrepuente"; in Swedish, "Mellandäck"; and in Norwegian, "Mellomdekk."

Conditions in the Steerage of a Sailing Vessels

The ceiling height of the between-deck typically ranged from 6 to 8 feet. Bunks made from rough wooden boards were arranged along both sides of the ship. Passengers usually lay in the direction of the ship's length, from fore to aft. However, on some ships, the bunks were positioned transversely or across the ship, which caused greater discomfort during rough seas. Larger ships sometimes featured an additional row of bunks in the center, leaving only narrow corridors between the rows.

Each bunk was designed to accommodate three to six people and was often referred to as a "family bunk." On the emigrant vessel Drafna, which sailed with emigrants in 1852, the bunks were large enough to hold five people. However, as the ship was not filled to capacity, only three to four people shared each bunk, allowing passengers to feel they had ample space.

Bunks were typically arranged as double-deck beds, with one bunk stacked on top of another. Advertisements for the Bolivar, which sailed in 1852, highlighted that there was enough headroom between the bunks for an adult to sit upright.

The most desirable location for a bunk was amidships, where the rocking of the boat was less noticeable. Bunks were outfitted with straw mattresses or mattresses stuffed with straw. Passengers had to provide their own pillows, blankets, animal hides, and other essential bedding. Contemporary accounts mention that lice and fleas thrived in these conditions, adding to the discomfort of the journey.

The newspaper announcement from Den Vestlandske Tidende on March 30, 1852, advertised passenger accommodation on the ship Nordpolen, commanded by Captain C. Olsen. The ship was scheduled to sail from Grimstad to Quebec and still had space available for passengers. The steerage was 7 feet high and featured a permanent between-deck. The ship also had cabins and a separate ward, making it comfortably outfitted for both cabin and steerage passengers. Additional information could be obtained from Gardener J. J. Tørjesen at Næss ironworks, Lund and Kummelhoff in Arendal, and Sheriff Throndsen, as well as from the undersigned in Grimstad. The announcement was signed by M. S. Tveten.

In 1868, a newspaper announcement for the Benedicte highlighted: "The ship has been classed 1st class with excellence for the last 7 years. The between deck has a height of 8 feet, the ventilation is extremely good, and it is equipped in an excellent way in all matters. It can safely be recommended as a seldom good passenger ship."

In 1866, the owners of the ship Dagmar provided this description for prospective passengers: "Dagmar, 349 Commercial lasts, with a high between deck, illuminated from the sides and roof, like on the steamships."

For the Drafna, an account from 1852 described daily life on board: "The between deck had to be 'scraped' two times a week."

A story in the March 1868 issue of Skilling Magazin by "C.A." narrated a hypothetical visit to the docks where an emigrant ship was preparing to embark. Part of this description gives insight into the conditions on the between deck: "On Norwegian emigrant ships which also hauled freight, there were no separate passenger cabins." He described the scene in the between decks of his fictional emigrant ship: "We go below into the room. On both sides, two tiers of bunks have been put up from stem to stern. On each bunk, which is marked with its particular number, there is a place for five."

On the Laurvig, arrangements on board were described as very primitive and inadequate. A deck of planks was laid over the beams between decks, with hatchways leading into the hold where all baggage was stowed on top of the cargo. Two rows of rough wooden bunks were built along the ship's length from fore to aft, one above the other. Between these bunks, special berths were sometimes reserved for emigrants with greater demands. Everything else was communal - there were no separate rooms for men and women. Light entered through open hatchways and skylights, but during storms, the hatchways were often covered, causing the air in the emigrants' quarters to become increasingly stuffy and unpleasant over time.

The Norden, carrying 403 passengers in 1866, had its hold divided by a temporary between deck made of wooden planks. Bins fitted with bunks were set up along both sides and down the middle of the deck, leaving only a narrow passage between them. A primitive toilet was located on each side of the deck. Above the hatch, a hood provided the only entrance to the passengers' quarters, and this was the sole source of ventilation. When rough weather forced the closure of the entrance, the hold became as dark as night, and the air quality deteriorated rapidly.

Steerage on steamships

On the great ocean steamships, the term "steerage" referred to any part of the ship designated for passengers traveling at the cheapest rate, typically located on the lower decks. In the United States Passenger act of 1882 the definition of "steerage passengers" is quite clearly defined as:

"The expression "steerage passenger" means all passengers except cabin passengers, and persons shall not be deemed cabin passengers unless the space allotted to their exclusive use is in the proportion of at least thirty-six clear superficial feet to each passenger."

The White Star Line steamships Adriatic and Celtic were both launched in 1872. An old promotional card reveals that steerage passengers were accommodated on the same decks as the saloon passengers. The steerage entrances were permanent, not accessed through hatchways. Hatchways were instead used solely for light and ventilation, supplemented by portholes. The steerage was heated with steam, and each steamer carried both a surgeon and a steerage matron to attend to the needs of the passengers. This was a significant improvement compared to the accommodations on most sailing vessels.

The Adriatic could accommodate approximately 800 steerage passengers, along with 50 first-class and 50 second-class passengers. By reviewing the deck plans for the Adriatic and Celtic, it is evident that steerage passengers were divided into three categories and housed in separate compartments. These categories included single men, married couples and families, and single women, with the single women's quarters located as far away from the single men as possible. Steerage passengers were not allowed to mingle with second- and first-class passengers, as designated areas on deck were reserved for each class. This arrangement was a common practice on most steamships of the time.

It is worth noting that there were no separate dining saloons for steerage passengers. Meals were prepared in the galley and brought to the common areas within each compartment, where long tables were set up for dining.

The conditions for steerage passengers improved over time as new ships were introduced by the major shipping lines. On the White Star Line ship Arabic (1), built in 1881, steerage accommodations were divided into three sections, each with separate entrances and lavatories. An ample water supply, maintained by a pulsometer pump, ensured constant circulation. The single men were quartered on the main and lower decks forward. Between their quarters and those of married couples and families, there was a saloon area and the engine room. Single women were housed further aft, in quarters entirely separate from the men. These quarters were supervised by experienced matrons and a fully qualified surgeon, ensuring that the women were well cared for. A hospital, fully equipped with all necessary supplies, was available for each section, with two additional hospitals on deck designated for infectious cases. The steerage berths were made of canvas and could be compactly stowed away when not in use, freeing up space for tables and seating during the day. Steerage passengers also had access to a pantry, where they could be supplied with tea and coffee prepared in the same manner as in the saloon. Women who preferred to make their own tea were provided with teapots and a plentiful supply of hot water. Invalids and seasick passengers were not neglected; they were supplied with beef tea, chicken broth, and arrowroot as needed. The main deck, fore and aft, served as a promenade and recreation area for steerage passengers, while saloon passengers had their own separate deck amidships, ensuring no mixing of classes

Around the turn of the century, the term "3rd class" became more commonly used for low-cost accommodations, and some ships even offered a "4th class." The deck plan below illustrates the 3rd class, or "steerage," accommodations on the Cunard Line steamships Saxonia and Ivernia, built in 1899. The 3rd class accommodations on these ships were nearly as good as those for 2nd class passengers, though they were more crowded, and the food was slightly less expensive. These ships could carry approximately 1,600 steerage passengers. On these vessels, meals were served in dining saloons. Steerage passengers could relax in one of the saloons or take a walk on one of the promenade decks when not in their staterooms. Sanitary conditions had also been significantly improved compared to earlier ships.